Dec

5

The Disobedient Prophet?

Filed Under Islam | Leave a Comment 


Last month I went to the annual meeting for the American Academy of Religion. The most interesting session I attended was titled “The Disobedient Prophet? Tensions between Qur’anic Verses and Prophetic Practice.”

The first presenter discussed the tension between minimalism and comprehensiveness in the development of Shariah law. He argued that the early Muslim community took a minimalist approach in which Muslims could choose to do as they wished as long as it was not required or forbidden in the Qur’an. He then argued that in time, the comprehensive position won out in which Shariah Law was understood to encompass all of life, based upon the teachings of the Qur’an and the Sunnah (the example set by Muhammad). He finished by arguing that the different schools of law in the Islamic world differ due to the way they have chosen to work out the teachings of Qur’an and the Sunnah.

The second presenter gave the example of how the Qur’an (9:5) teaches to “slay pagans wherever you find them,” yet Muhammad chose to ransom prisioners at the end of the battle of Badr.

The third presenter gave the example of the Qur’anic injunction to beat a disobedient wife (4:34), yet some hadiths recount how Muhammad discouraged men from doing so.

The fourth presenter gave the example of how the Qur’an teaches that those guilty of sexual immorality should receive 100 lashes (24:2), yet in a hadith Muhammad says that those guilty of sexual immorality should be stoned instead.

At the end of the session, the panelists came to the conclusion that these contradictions were only apparent. They went into detail describing how Muslims through the centuries have attempted to solve the tensions. Some of the “solutions” were more convincing than others.

In any case, I left the session reminded of the difficulty and complexity of studying other faiths. Those in the Christian tradition who have studied theology, church history, and biblical studies know how complex some issues can be. It is common place for those who have even graduated with an M.Div. to feel like they just began to scratch the surface on so many different areas of study.

Therefore, as Christians who are studying other religions, we should be humble and realize that the various religious traditions we are studying have their own complex history of practices and beliefs, and cannot be “figured out” any more than Christianity can be “figured out” by simply reading a few books.

Oct

11

Seeing “Cults” as People Groups

Filed Under Communicating with those of other faiths, New Religious Movements | 5 Comments 

I recently came across an intriguing concept while reading Encountering New Religious Movements: A Holistic Evangelical Approach (ed. Hexham, Rost, and Morehead II). According to the introduction, the various authors in this book intend to bridge the gap between apologetics and contextual missiology. As part of this project, they contend that Christians should approach those in New Religious Movements (NRM) in the same way as they would approach unreached people groups on the mission field.

On the one hand, this might not be a good idea because it might cause confusion. A “people group” is usually understood as an ethnolinguistic group with a shared identity, language, history, and culture. In missions, a people group is the largest group through which the gospel can flow without encountering significant barriers of understanding and acceptance.

On the other hand, seeing NRMs as unreached people groups might help in evangelism. Many Christians unfortunately tend to see those in NRMs (i.e. LDS, Jehovah’s Witnesses, etc) as opponents that need to be proven wrong. As would be expected, this approach usually closes the door to evangelism. In contrast, Christians tend to approach unreached people groups around the world with a greater sense of understanding and compassion. Maybe by seeing those in NRMs like we see those in unreached people groups, we will be more likely to encounter them with love rather than with contention.

Sep

20

Buddhism in Thailand

Filed Under Buddhism | Leave a Comment 

I just finished writing a paper on Buddhism in Thailand and I wanted to point out 2 ideas that are important in understanding Buddhism. These observations apply specifically to Buddhism in Thailand, but I think they also play a role in other contexts.

1. 2 ways of being Buddhist:

a. Monks:

- Seek to follow the teachings of the Buddha
- Observe a more philosophical and “textbook” form of Buddhism
- Study and follow the Tripitika (Theravada scriptures).
- Keep over 200 rules as part of the sangha.
- Have a strict moral code to follow

b. Laity:
- Unfamiliar with philosophical Buddhism
- Mostly unfamiliar with the Tripitika
- Concerned mainly with gaining karmic merit by giving offerings to the monks
- They worship the Buddha and a variety of gods and spirits
- They have 5 moral commandments to follow

2. Buddhism easily assimilates other religious beliefs:

Buddhism in Thailand is a mix of Theravada Buddhism, Hinduism, and animism. Thais believe in karma and reincarnation, but they also devote much of their time in appeasing and worshipping local gods and spirits. These gods and spirits can bring them either fortune or misfortune in this life. Therefore, having the gods and spirits on one’s side is very important.

The image above is of a shrine on the grounds of a large hotel in Thailand. It is someone’s job at the hotel to go and place offerings at the shrine each day to ensure the prosperity and safety of the hotel. The usual offerings are incense, fruit, flowers, and soda in a bottle. Almost every house and business has a shrine where they place offerings each day.

Remember that…

First, Buddhism tends to have two ways of being Buddhist, one for the monks and one for the laity. “Textbook” Buddhism is often foreign to the average lay practitioner.

Second, Buddhism easily assimilates other religious beliefs. Buddhism in Thailand includes elements from Hinduism and animism. Ch’an (Zen) Buddhism in China is a mix of Buddhism and Taoism. In Japan, Buddhism and Shinto are often intertwined.

Sep

9

Harold Netland’s critique of Religious Pluralism

Filed Under Religious Pluralism | 2 Comments 

For one of my seminars I am reading Encountering Religious Pluralism: The Challenge to Christian Faith & Mission by Harold Netland (2001). I would highly recommend this book to anybody interested in religious pluralism. Netland begins by discussing the cultural context that has given rise to postmodernism and religious pluralism (the belief that all religions are more or less equally salvific).  Netland then proceeds to analyze and critique religious pluralism, focusing extensively on the model proposed by John Hick, one of the leading proponents of religious pluralism.  Netland finishes by proposing an Evangelical theology of religions. 

In one of his chapters Netland presents what he sees to be some of the problems with religious pluralism. I would like to present a few of them:

1. Pseudopluralisms: some advocates of religious tolerance and what appears to be religious equality are actually “covert inclusivists.”  That is, although they appear to be saying that they accept all religions, they actually believe that their own is superior.  For example, the Dalai Lama is a known proponent of religious tolerance, yet for him “salvation” is ultimately attained within Buddhism.  He does not overtly seek to convert people to Buddhism because of his belief in karma and reincarnation; it is not because he thinks that all religions are equally true.

2. Reinterpretation of beliefs and Reductionism: Religious pluralists in order to make their model “work” are forced to reinterpret religious beliefs in a way that would be unacceptable to orthodox believers of the various traditions.

3. Personae/Impersonae: The problem of whether God/the Real/Ultimate Reality that religious pluralists describe is personal or impersonal is another weakness of religious pluralism.  Pluralists are unable to convincingly explain how “the Real” can be personal for theists like Muslims and Christians and impersonal for others like Zen Buddhists and Advaita Vedantists.  If pluralists end up attributing either a personal or impersonal nature to “the Real” they will be privileging some traditions over others, which is what they are supposedly trying not to do.

4. Ineffability: Religious Pluralists argue that “the Real” is ineffable and has a nature that is beyond the concepts that we have.  Although we are unable to fully comprehend God, this does not mean that literally none of the properties attributed to God actually apply to God. According to Netland, this is “self-referentially incoherent” since at least the property of being ineffable would apply to God.  Thus, God would not be beyond all our categories of thought and language.  Moreover, Netland points out that if no substantial qualities can be properly applied to God then the appropriate response would be “agnostic silence” since we would know nothing about God.      

To conclude, Netland argues that a genuinely pluralistic model must be coherent and must not privilege any particular religious perspective.  When discussing with so-called pluralists remember that pluralists are usually forced to either distort the religious beliefs of others or they unintentionally end up privileging a particular religious tradition (usually it is their own).

Aug

26

Sign at Lotus Temple

Filed Under Baha'i, Religious Pluralism | 2 Comments 

 

As you enter the grounds of the Baha’i Lotus Temple in New Delhi this stone sign is set into a grass incline. Of the temple it states:

“This House is a place for prayer and meditation for the peoples of all religions and races. From within its portals the voice of mankind will ever be raised in praise and glorification of the creator of the universe.”

As you can see, the temple is intended to be a place of worship for people of all religions. You can also see that they tried to get to what they saw as the common denominator of all religions, namely, worship of “the creator of the universe.”

The problem with this is that belief in the creator of the universe, much less the worship of this creator, is not found in all religions. For example, Hindus and Buddhists do not believe in the creator of the universe. They may believe in a deity who formed this age, but the universe has always existed according to Hindus and Buddhists. It is uncreated and eternal.

I point this sign out just as an example of another weakness in the pluralist position.

Aug

23

Baha’i Lotus Temple in New Delhi, India

Filed Under Baha'i, Religious Pluralism | 8 Comments 

In my last visit to India I had the opportunity to visit the Baha’i Lotus Temple in Delhi. The temple was built in 1986 and is known as the Taj Mahal of the 20th century.

The Lotus Temple is open to people of all faiths and each day they have a prayer time where representatives from different religions like Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, and Christianity are invited to come and offer prayers up to God.

This pluralistic outlook is at the heart of the Baha’i faith. Nevertheless, they still claim that they are the closest to the truth since the last prophet that God sent was their own, namely, Bahaullah (1817-1892). He claimed to be “the Supreme Manifestation of God.” Although they take pride in their pluralistic position, they cannot live it out consistently.  This is evident by the fact that they end up claiming superiority over all other religions.

Aug

14

Jesus and Krishna

Filed Under General religion, Hinduism | 1 Comment 

This is an image of the Hindu god, Krishna. Actually, the god is Vishnu and Krishna is one of his avatars. An avatar is a manifestation of a god; literally it is a “down-coming.”

According to Vaishnavites (worshipers of Vishnu), Vishnu has had nine avatars and one is yet to come. He has appeared as a fish, tortoise, boar, man-lion, dwarf, warrior with an axe, Rama (epic hero from the Ramayana), Krishna (as seen in the Bhagavad-Gita), and the Buddha. Finally, he will come as Kalkin, a man riding on a white horse, who will take away all evil. Krishna is by far the most popular of Vishnu’s avatars. Interestingly, some Hindus believe that Jesus Christ is actually an avatar of Krishna.

Often, people incorrectly equate the Hindu doctrine of avatars with the Christian doctrine of the Incarnation. Although these doctrines appear similar on the surface (the divine is made manifest in human form), differences abound:

1. Vishnu has manifested himself multiple times while the Son of God took on flesh once for all.
2. Vishnu appeared in animal and human-animal forms.
3. In the incarnation, the Son of God took on the frailty of humanity while avatars retain their divine power.
4. Avatars are triumphant over evil, while Christ did suffer and die because of evil.
5. Avatars pass away after their job is done while the Son of God remains as a man.
6. Avatars come to restore the balance of good and evil, while Christ is understood to have defeated evil once for all.
7. The Son of God’s incarnation is rooted in history while Vishnu’s avatars are loosely connected with history.

These are just some of the differences between the Christian doctrine of the Incarnation and the Hindu doctrine of avatars. This is another example of how religions might seem similar on the surface but when looked at closely are much different than previously thought.

Aug

5

Who Speaks for Islam?

Filed Under Islam | Leave a Comment 

I recently came across a very interesting book, Who Speaks for Islam? What a Billion Muslims Really Think by John L. Esposito and Dalia Mogahed. This book is based upon a Gallup’s World Poll in which they “surveyed a sample representing more than 90% of the world’s 1.3 billion Muslims” (xi). The book provides great information on what the worldwide Muslim community thinks about politics, radical Islam, gender issues, and the west.

In the first chapter of the book, Esposito and Mogahed introduce the reader to the basic beliefs and practices of Islam.  Unfortunately, a few of their statements reveal an apologetic bias.  For example, they write that “Islam means a strong commitment to God and shares the same Arabic root as the word for peace, or salaam” (7).  Actually, Islam means submission (to God). Thus, a Muslim is one who submits to God.  A couple of pages later they write, “Jesus’ mother, Mary, is mentioned by name more times in the Quran than in the New Testament” (9). I am not sure exactly what point they were trying to make, but they are clearly trying to make their Christian readers feel more comfortable with Islam. This apologetic bias does call into question how the Gallup’s poll data was presented in the book.  Nevertheless, the book is still valuable.

Instead of summarizing the book I just want to list a few of the findings that I found the most interesting:

1. 7% (91 million) of the Muslim world is radicalized (They believe that the 9/11 attacks were “completely” justified) (97).
2. Radicals are not more religious than the general population (98).
3. On average, the radicalized are more educated than moderate Muslims (71), disproving the idea that radicalism comes from the poor and uneducated.
4. The attributes most associated with the U.S. are: ruthless (68%), scientifically and technologically advanced (68%), aggressive (66%), conceited (65%), and morally decadent (64%).

I would recommend this book to those who want to better understand what Muslims believe (just beware of the bias of the authors).

Jul

8

Who can use the word “Allah”?

Filed Under Communicating with those of other faiths, Islam, Sikhism | 1 Comment 

I recently came across a story in the Times of India which describes how in Muslim-majority Malaysia, Sikhs are going to court for the right to use the word “Allah” in their sacred scriptures.  The Malaysian government has banned non-Muslims from using the word.  What is even more interesting is that the Sikhs are not the only ones fighting for this right; even a Roman Catholic newspaper is going to court to keep its right to use “Allah” for God.

As you might know, the use of “Allah” by Christians when referring to the god of the Bible is a controversial issue in missiology.  Some argue that ”Allah” is simply the generic Arabic word for god and as such, it can be used by Christians.  On the other hand, others argue that the word “Allah” is too closely tied to Islam, and using it leads to doctrinal confusion.

There are many issues to consider:

1. Can the word “Allah” be separated from Islam?
2. What do you do if you are in an Arabic-speaking context and there is no other word for God?
3. What word have Arabic-speaking Christians used for God through the centuries?
4. How would using “Allah” for the god of the Bible confuse a Muslim, a new believer, etc?
5. How would the issue be different in a Muslim context as opposed to a non-Muslim context?
6. How would the issue be different in an Arabic-speaking context as opposed to a non-Arabic speaking context?
7. How would this issue affect Bible translation? Translation of Christian materials? Evangelistic materials?
8. How would using “Allah” facilitate or detract from the communication of the gospel?
9. How would not using “Allah” facilitate or detract from the communication of the gospel?

These questions are by no means exhaustive, but they do show how the issue is more complex than many make it out to be.  No matter where you stand on this issue, the reality is that a new believer needs to be taught about the nature of God as revealed in the Bible.  If the new believer was a Muslim then he must be taught the difference between the god of the Bible and the god of the Qur’an.  Similarly, if the new believer was an atheist then he must be taught the difference between what the Bible says God is like versus what he has heard about God from those around him.  This is true for all believers.  We should continually check to see how our view of God lines up with God’s self-revelation in the Scriptures.  As A.W. Tozer once wrote, “What comes into our minds when we think of God is the most important thing about us.” (The Knowledge of the Holy, Chapter 1) 

Jul

2

Why do Muslims not like dogs?

Filed Under Islam | 4 Comments 

Well, not all Muslims.  However, traditionally Muslims have avoided dogs since they are ritually unclean. Here are two interesting stories I saw about Muslims and dogs:

From my studies I had learned that Muslims are usually not that keen about dogs, but I had never really seen documentation about where this came from. So, I decided to do some investigation. Here are a few of Muhammad’s sayings about dogs found in Sahih Bukhari (the most respected collection of Hadiths in the Muslim world):

1. Volume 1, Book 4, #173

Narrated Abu Huraira: “Allah’s Apostle said, “If a dog drinks from the utensil of anyone of you it is essential to wash it seven times.””

2. Volume 1, Book 9, #490

Narrated ‘Aisha:  “The things which annul the prayers were mentioned before me. They said, “Prayer is annulled by a dog, a donkey and a woman (if they pass in front of the praying people).” I said, “You have made us (i.e. women) dogs. I saw the Prophet praying while I used to lie in my bed between him and the Qibla. Whenever I was in need of something, I would slip away. For I disliked to face him.”"

3. Volume 3, Book 39, #516

Narrated As-Sa’ib bin Yazid: “Abu Sufyan bin Abu Zuhair, a man from Azd Shanu’a and one of the companions of the Prophet said, “I heard Allah’s Apostle saying, ‘If one keeps a dog which is meant for guarding neither a farm nor cattle, one Qirat of the reward of his good deeds is deducted daily.” I said, “Did you hear this from Allah’s Apostle?” He said, “Yes, by the Lord of this Mosque.”"

4. Volume 4, Book 54, #448

Narrated Abu Talha: “I heard Allah’s Apostle saying; “Angels (of Mercy) do not enter a house wherein there is a dog or a picture of a living creature (a human being or an animal).”” 

5. Volume 4, Book 54, #450

Narrated Salim’s father: “Once Gabriel promised the Prophet (that he would visit him, but Gabriel did not come) and later on he said, “We, angels, do not enter a house which contains a picture or a dog.””

 On the blogroll to the right I added a link to an electronic concordance of the Qur’an and Hadith.

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